Bidayan (Land Dyak) relations with Brooke can be explained in terms of Bidayan belief in 'semangat'. This is defined as the potency found in all living things, from people to rice. 'Semangat' is most concentrated in wealthy, successful, influential people, with whom the Bidayuh would seek to align. Brooke, quickly identified as powerful, thus attracted the support of the Bidayuh, and Brooke used the Bidayan belief in 'semangat' to bolster his power. However, the Bidayan desire to share in Brooke's 'semangat' can also be used to explain Bidayan resistance to government demands for taxes and services.
J.E. Watson
The first sentence of the preface explains the need for the book: 'No detailed study has yet been undertaken of the economic development of Sarawak during the period of Brooke rule (1841-1946)'. The author achieves his aim of filling this gap. He successfully explains why economic development in Sarawak was so slow and gives some comparison with colonial territories and the post-Brooke situation. The term 'native interests' in the title, is a summation of the purpose behind Brooke economic policy throughout the period.
The book's contents pages and index are very comprehensive. There is a large bibliography; and the appendices include copies of many of the pertinent laws as well as lists and explanations of Sarawak's ethnic groups and jungle produce. The table of contents shows that the book is organized into subject areas rather than arranged chronologically. The arrangement chosen suggests Brooke policies and a Sarawak economy that vary from activity to activity, resource to resource, and ethnic group to ethnic group, but change little through time. This structure also adds to the uniqueness of the book. Not only does it cover a subject not dealt with before but also avoids the chronological structure of most studies of Brooke Sarawak.
However this seemingly positive aspect of the book turns out to be a major drawback. Each chapter is subdivided both chronologically and by subject. Consequently material on one subject is spread throughout the chapter. For instance, in the chapter on mineral resources, gold is given three separate sections, interspersed with sections on coal, oil, and antimony. This switching from subject to subject and back again is confusing and irritating. It also forces the author to recap frequently, causing repetition. On a larger scale the Borneo Company has its own section in this same chapter, despite the author devoting a separate chapter to Western enterprise.
The organization of the book makes repetition its most annoying feature. The Chinese, and Western enterprise, with fingers in every pie, are covered so extensively throughout the book that by the time they are given their own separate sections, the author has little to add and can only reiterate what has already been said adequately elsewhere. Repetition is also a problem in interpreting economic development or the lack of it. The same factors appear to be responsible for everything: lack of resources, difficult terrain, poor communications, shortage of labor, Sarawak's remoteness and obscurity overseas, and Brooke paternalism and anti-capitalism; are cited again and again and give the impression of a book badly organized.
The style of the book is very dry. Admittedly the author has a lot of material to cover, but while facts and figures are necessary, the material is brought to life so much more with anecdotes, such as Vyner writing an official instruction on the back of a crumpled envelope. The sections are very small, averaging about one page each. No sooner is the reader engrossed in one subject than it is time to switch to another. Consequently, the subject matter of the longer sections appears much more interesting to the reader than that dealt with in small sections.
The author gives the impression of impartiality while treating the Brookes rather generously. The Brookes had no special training or aptitude for economics and brought with them their personal and cultural prejudices and yet the author constantly gives the impression of wise, benevolent and shrewd policies. The connection between James Brooke's personal problems and his policies is fully explored in Tarling's 'The burthen, the risk and the glory' but not here. For instance, the Brooke's friendly relations with the Borneo Company, ascribed in the book to the BCL's support of the Brookes and long-term strategies, can also be explained in terms of Brooke's animosity towards Henry Wise and collaboration with Robert Henderson to defeat Wise.
While the book covers all aspects of the Brooke economy, it could go a lot further in explaining the meaning behind the facts. Why were the Brookes so prejudiced against Western enterprise and the Chinese? How much difference did Brooke policies make to the Sarawak economy? Has Sarawak benefited or suffered from its backwardness? The reader is left with more questions than answers.
The book is crammed full of facts and figures reflecting the volume of material, both primary and secondary, that the author consulted. The extent of his research is visible from the acknowledgments, notes, and bibliography. Where information is not available, the author says so. The author's success in obtaining so much data is the more remarkable, given the difficulties in covering the period of Vyner's rule due to the lack of private written material and official records. The tables and charts in the book add meaning to the statistical information. The numerous maps are also helpful, although many show post-Brooke information. The photographs lighten the tone. Those of the mining activities are especially interesting, though unfortunately all the photographs are in the center of the book and not attached to the relevant sections.
The book succeeds in its aim of filling the gap in the history of Brooke Sarawak. It works well as a reference book, with the contents and index leading the reader to plenty of factual information on every area of the Sarawak economy. It works less well as a reading book, with its confusing organization, dry style, and scant interpretation. This book is the beginning of the study of the economic history of Brooke Sarawak, but hopefully not the end.
J.E. Watson
large-format, softcover, 284 pp. map, photos, facsimiles
The Japanese Era (Masa Jepun) has been a neglected period of Sarawak history. Bob Reece remedies this with 'Masa Jepun', a "thematic exploration of group and individual experience" of the Japanese Occupation.
Dr. Reece is eminently suited to the task. His previous book, The name of Brooke, deals with the Brooke Cession, which followed shortly after the occupation. Currently a history professor at Murdoch University, Australia, he once worked as a correspondent in Sarawak. Several of the Oxford in Asia historical reprints feature introductions by him. His works include a biography of Datu Bandar Abang Haji Mustafa and one in progress on Tan Sri Ling Beng Siew.
Masa Jepun sets the stage with a detailed look at the Brooke Centenary. Reece reports, too, on the Rajah and Ranee in exile during the occupation. Photos and references to the Brookes add to the lore of the White Rajahs.
Dr. Reece recounts the drama of conquest and occupation. All are present and accounted for: the resident Japanese community; Japanese soldiers, teachers, and typists; "comfort women"; romusha laborers; Punjabi soldiers; POW's; escapees; and, of course, Sarawakians. Japanese responses toward different groups varied, depending on political considerations and racial feelings. So their experiences run the gamut.
Reece examines Japanese culture and the ways in which it both accorded and clashed with Sarawak cultures. He lays out for the reader the structure of the new government. Included, too, are assessments of agriculture and industry, and the barter and black markets.
One chapter examines the economy of scarcity. The disappearance of common items like matches, shoes, and diesel fuel resulted in ingenious substitutes. Shortages of drugs forced a return to traditional medicine and forest products. Another effect of scarcity was the revival of trapping, hunting, and other tribal arts. In fact, Reece notes, "the occupation represented the final high point of Iban poetic and shamanic expression".
'Masa Jepun' chronicles the recapture of Sarawak, not neglecting rebellions and skirmishes. The book follows to liberation and beyond, examining the changes, both physical and abstract, wrought by occupation. The reader learns that the self-reliance forged during the occupation strengthened Sarawak's sense of self-determination.
Despite its serious topic, Masa Jepun manages to be lively and readable. The book abounds with rare photographs, many from private collections. Color facsimiles of documents, posters, and even "banana money" further enhance the text. Masa Jepun, like The name of Brooke, is grounded in meticulous research. Footnotes refer back to an exhaustive bibliography. This includes archival material, films, and dozens of interviews from Sarawak and Japan.
Excerpts from these interviews pervade the book. Reece resists the temptation to paraphrase; he lets the words speak for themselves. These accounts are often compelling and sometimes painful. Dr. Reece has performed a service in recording them for posterity.
Essentially, Masa Jepun explores the military, economic, cultural, and psychological effects of the pivotal years of 1941-45. As he intended, Dr. Reece personalizes the history of the occupation through individual and group experiences.
Pamela Vest
Longwood, Florida
Two softcover volumes: xvii + xipp, + 701 pp. Three maps, 19 plates.
Volume 1 deals with the period up to 24 December 1941, when Kuching was taken, beginning with an introductory overview of the 0ccupation, and then looking at the presence of Japanese settlers in Sarawak prior to the war. In this, as throughout the book, the author uses original documents and letters, quoted sometimes in full, and including detailed references for those wishing to consult the originals. We read of the establishment of "The Institute to Promote Pacific Relations", various military orders prepared in anticipation of occupying SE Asian countries, and the administration which would be needed.
This is followed by documents dealing with the defence of Sarawak, and contingency plans against invasion (many of these are from the pen of J.L. Noakes). The third section covers the beginning of the Pacific War to the fall of Kuching, with accounts of the reaction to Pearl Harbour, the destruction of the oil wells, the invasion, air raids, and the advance on, and capture of, Kuching.
Lists follow, cataloguing the location and status of all the European civilians in Sarawak, their activities, movements, and capture, escape or death. There is a longer account of how Mrs Elam and her baby Susan escaped, as well as the story of the 2nd/15th Punjabi Regiment, who were there to defend Kuching Airfield.
Volume 2 is in two parts, the first going up to June 9th 1945, the day before the Australians landed on Labuan (a small island lying off the northwest coast of Sabah [North Borneo]), while the second part takes the story on to the release of the prisoners.
Some 20 pages are given over to documents dealing with the establishment of the Japanese Military Government (the 'gunseibu'), and its administration; and this is followed by nearly 300 pages of diaries and other documents dealing with life at Batu Lintang, a short way out of Kuching, where prisoners and civilian internees were held during the war (now the site of a Teacher Training College, I believe). Contributions have been taken from such "guests of the Emperor" as W.G. Morrison, Lionel Morris, Frank Merrett, Ernest Pepler, and George Pringle. A further chapter covers "Massacres" and "Murders", in particular the events at Long Nawang, and the fate of Cyril Le Gros Clark.
Finally there are documents covering the final days at Batu Lintang, the story of the "Old Lady" (the illegal camp radio), Japanese preparations against attack, the road to victory and freedom, the 0rder of Service of Thanksgiving at Batu Lintang on September 13th, and Don Yates's account of post-war Kuching in 1946.
There are detailed notes, a very full bibliography, and two excellent indexes, one covering names, the other subjects.
As the title declares, this is a book of original documents, which the author allows to speak to themselves: there is little or no comment on them. This source book will of immense value to those who wish to learn more of this period in Sarawak's history, though well over a third of the book has been devoted to the experiences of POWs/Internees; and there is little (perhaps because few original documents have survived) of the life of the Japanese and the peoples of Sarawak during the 0ccupation.
These carefully selected documents (mostly from the Imperial War Museum, London) will more than compensate for this apparent imbalance. I greatly enjoyed re-reading these, especially the story of Lionel Morris, the ending of whose diary sums up, for me, the heart-breaking tragedy of families at home who were often in complete ignorance of what was happening: for these are not merely dry historical documents, but living stories.
When Lionel Morris eventually travelled home after the war, his train was late arriving at Manchester and it was well into the night when he reached Altringham, and finally reached home. He rang his father's door bell, but no answer.
"My heart beat like a hammer. I rang the bell a third time .... A window
opened above my head and my father's voice enquired, 'Who is it?'
I answered, 'It is Lionel.'
He somewhat bewildered asked, 'Lionel who?'
'It is Lionel, your son, who else should it be?'
He came down the stairs two at a time; the door flung open, and he stood gaping,
unbelieving. I thought he was going to fall, but at last he got the message.
'I'm all right.' I said, 'I've come home'".
David Hubbard
Highgate, London, UK
Thanks to Clifford Sather, editor of the Borneo Research Bulletin, for supplying the following information:
A major paper on James Brooke, the first Rajah of Sarawak,'"This peculiar acuteness of feeling": James Brooke and the enactment of desire', appears in the current BORNEO RESEARCH BULLETIN, volume 29, 1998. Its author, an Australian historian of the Brooke era, Dr. J.H. Walker, explores an issue, long a subject of active speculation, but one that has largely evaded previous writers on the Brookes, the nature of the First Rajah's sexuality and the impact of his private life on his public persona and policies.
The paper is followed by comments contributed by Borneo specialists, Rita Armstrong, Donald E. Brown, Craig Lockard, Otto Steinmayer, and Nicholas Tarling (the latter, James Brooke's principal biographer) and by an extended reply, 'Savage Gardens: sexuality, scholarship and Sarawak' by the author.
Indivdual copies of the Borneo Research Bulletin are available for sale by writing to the Borneo Research Council, P.O. Box A, Phillips, Maine 04966, USA, at USD 20 plus postage. They may also be obtained by becoming a regular member of the Council. Inquires should be sent to the same address. Membership is open to anyone with interests in Borneo studies.
Little, Brown and Company, 1998, 480 p.
Upon the release of her debut novel Kalimantaan in 1998, award-winning short story writer C.S. Godshalk was dubbed 'the memsahib's Conrad' by the Sunday Times.
The novel, indeed reminiscent of Joseph Conrad's Lord Jim, is based on the life of James Brooke. During the golden age of British imperialism, this 19th century adventurer carved out a small piece of the East Indies for himself. First founding the settlement of Kuching on the island of Borneo he was later recognized as the 'White Rajah' of Sarawak.
In Kalimantaan (which incidentally means 'Island of the raw sago' in the Dyak language) the story is mainly told from the perspective of Amelia, wife of Gideon Barr (the fictional version of James Brooke). After ten years in the wilderness Barr has returned to England to find a bride. The young woman of his choice, Amelia Mumm, accompanies her husband back to Borneo. What follows is the tale of a Victorian woman's experiences in an alien, and often frightening, environment.
Godshalk is a great stylist, with an astounding command of language. Blending fiction with historical and anthropological facts, she recreates the brooding atmosphere of the island's interior, where these Victorian pioneers were more or less engulfed by the Malay and Dyak culture, mysterious and impenetrable like the forest itself. There is for example a chilling description of a headhunting campaign.
However, although the book depicts a very vivid image of the situation in Barr's little empire, the plot remains somewhat thin. In this respect it is not always clear how the vast array of characters introduced into the story are supposed to contribute to it. As a result of this multitude of personae the development of their characters leaves something wanting too.
Unfortunately, this is also true for Gideon Barr. It seems as if the author has taken to heart the warning which she lets one of the minor characters in the book give to Barr's cousin and rival, Richard Hogg. In a letter, their uncle Jared Heath writes that in the East complex souls do not do well, and he himself had clung to his two-dimensionality like a raft.
The most intriguing figure in the book is Richard Hogg, who rules over one of the remoter districts of Barr's realm. He is revered by the tribesmen, who refer to him as 'Tuan Mudah', or heir apparent, and whom he calls in return 'my Dyaks'. He is a brooding man, with a dark mindset and as such 'a true denizen of the place'.
The incomplete glossary of Malay and Dyak terms I find somewhat irritating. To add to the flavour the text is spiced up with numerous words from the native languages. However, while some words that might be expected to be more or less commonly known such as adat, imam and kongsi are in the glossary, one looks in vain for angat, langkan, parang and sabut.
Despite these flaws, Kalimantaan is a delightful book. While it might be a bit premature to put the author in the same category of great storytellers such as Kipling, Conrad or Marquez, I look forward to her next one.
Carool Kersten
seekay2000@hotmail.com
In this paper, Brooke historian, Dr. John Walker of the University of New South Wales delves into a part of James Brooke's private life, which has been much speculated about, but has received little serious research: the Rajah's sex life.
In the same issue Borneo specialists, Rita Armstrong, Donald E. Brown, Craig Lockard, Otto Steinmayer, and Nicholas Tarling give their comments on Walker's findings (pp 190-210). These are followed by a response of the author to his critics (pp 210-222).
In his introductory remarks Walker points out that until to date research into the Brooke's sexuality had either been avoided, as was the case with most earlier writers, or 'constrained by the ideological dominance of heterosexuality', as far as modern scholars are concerned. Consequently, Walker argues, the picture painted of Brooke's private life is either incomplete or incorrect, because it is constructed on the basis of 20th century sexual paradigms.
Walker continues to explain that an analysis of love in a 19th century setting along the axis of heterosexuality-homosexuality is irrelevant, because the terms had not been conceived until after Brooke's death. Researchers have failed to realize that the pertaining terminology is historically specific. In order to be able to appreciate Brooke's views, intentions and actions, Walker opts for a hermeneutic approach which takes the contemporary context of the subject of research into consideration, founding the discourse on the more neutral patterns of affection and desire.
There follows a detailed analysis of Brooke's relationships with a number of adolescent boys on the basis of various correspondences and other sources. The exercise is broken down in segments. After dealing with the years from Brooke's schooldays until 1838 and the initial years in Sarawak (1839-1846), Walker focuses on the relationship between Brooke and Charles Grant (Hoddy Doddy), quoting at great length from Brooke's letters. The final years in Burrator are treated more briefly, emphasizing that Brooke shifted his attention from middle- and upper-class midshipmen to working class boys. Walker rounds off his analysis with the observation that, despite the fact that both Brooke and Grant destroyed evidence that might be too revealing, it is surprising that any suggestive material has survived at all. Walker points out that this material suffices to refute asexual or avuncular interpretations.
Walker concludes that his findings concerning Brooke's sexuality invite scholars to re-study three aspects of Brooke's role in British colonialism: his policies towards Brunei, his relation with the Royal Navy commanders in Southeast Asia and his attitude towards his nephews and succession in Sarawak.
In his closing remarks the author returns to emphasizing the importance of contextuality for the correct appreciation of historical figures' personal life.
Anthropologist Rita Armstrong doubts whether Walker's conclusions concerning Brooke's sexuality are justified by his method of analysis. Also she questions the way Walker relates his findings to Brooke's political activities. However, Walker's depiction of Brooke, shows what an unlikely character he was among his fellow imperialists.
Although not convinced by Walker's objections to the heterosexist paradigm, Donald Brown credits Walker for addressing Brooke's sexuality in order to get a fuller understanding of his character.
Before addressing Walker's paper per se, Craig Lockard muses upon the shifting of paradigms from one generation of scholars to the other. According to Lockard, the evidence for Brooke's sexual inclinations resulting from, what he calls Walker's postmodern exercise, is not conclusive, neither is the claim that sexual motives underlie Brooke's policy towards Brunei
Otto Steinmayer's down-to-earth approach raises, despite its sometimes outrageous (not to say hilarious) candor, interesting points concerning both Walker's approach and conclusions.
Nicholas Tarling's brief reaction on Walker's paper questions whether Walker has succeeded in putting Brooke in his proper contemporary perspective.
Under the title Savage Gardens: Sexuality, Scholarship and Sarawak, Walker gives an elaborate response to the above criticisms, maintaining that Brooke's affection and (sexual) desire towards boys can not be denied. Consequently his relationship with them can not be qualified as asexual (whether 'consumed' or not). Honest endeavors to analyze also the most intimate sides of Brooke's complex character can only improve our understanding of his public career.
C. Kersten
c.kersten@bni.ballast-nedam.com
softcover, 468 pp., b&w photos
"But if it be a sin to covet honor I am the most offending soul alive." - Henry V
The catchy book title ostensibly refers to this quote, but it could refer as well to Tom Harrisson's outrageousness. Tom Harrisson's name is practically synonymous with the Sarawak Museum, where he was curator for 20 years. Ornithology was Tom's first and abiding love. Soon his interests broadened into anthropology, sociology, and natural history. His legacy includes books, papers, and films, and the legend of Tom Harrisson himself.
Predictably, Tom's beginnings were unconventional; he was raised in a British community in Argentina. In the 1930's he attended Oxford University. There he distinguished himself by wearing sandals and red toenail polish. An expedition to Borneo interrupted his university education, but it set the course of his life.
Harrisson next joined an expedition to the New Hebrides to study the Big Nambas and cannibalism. These islands, for Tom, were of "an impossible fascination". Fascinating, too, was Zita, a team member's wife and Tom's soon-to-be paramour. Heimann describes her as "what passes in Oxford circles as a femme fatale".
Back in England Tom applied his anthropology techniques to the "cannibals of Britain". This "Mass-Observation", as he termed it, was then a novel concept. It evolved into today's market research. Tom even worked at a variety of humble jobs in order to explore the attitudes of the working class. During the Blitz, his researchers polled Londoners in order to gauge the public's psychological state.
Harrisson's knowledge of Borneo led to his commanding an infiltration mission into Japanese-held Borneo. This party of eight eventually grew to 80 operatives. To pave the way for the Allied invasion, they set up an intelligence network and organized guerrillas. Harrisson even managed to evacuate some stranded American flyers from an airstrip of his own design.
Tom reveled in his flamboyance. He had the hypnotic eyes of a Rasputin. Some people thought he resembled Jesus. Seeing him, they would exclaim, "Jesus Christ!" No doubt he found this gratifying. In the jungle he sometimes wore Dyak dress, supposedly for convenience. His chest was scarified, a souvenir of his New Hebrides days. For good measure he added Borneo tattoo marks. His car sported decoration, too - a large Kenyah dragon design. Sometimes an orangutan rode along with its hairy arm dangling from the car window.
Luckily, Harrisson found an outlet for his promotional talents at the Sarawak Museum. In addition, he edited the "Sarawak Museum Journal" and oversaw natural history and ethnography projects. (Tom's anthropology tended to be "up close and personal". Some of his insights derived from his Kelabit wives and Bornean mistresses.) His archeological digs culminated in the discovery of the seemingly 40,000 year old Niah Skull. Its age and implications are still being debated. Where Harrisson went, controversy was sure to follow.
Having wide-ranging interests sometimes worked against Tom. Critics charged that his knowledge, though broad, lacked depth. The lack of a university diploma tainted his achievements, as did his nonconformity. Even his death and funeral were unusual. He was singular to the end.
Tom Harrisson was ahead of his time in many respects. His Mass-Observation was the predecessor of market research and focus groups. His proposing land rights for native peoples was considered revolutionary. He pioneered sea-turtle hatching and release. Similarly, he and his wife Barbara established orangutan re-introduction into the wild. He saved from extinction the tamaraw, a small water buffalo. Harrisson was constantly searching for connections between botany, zoology, and the environment. Thus, he became an early advocate for ecology issues.
Judith Heimann knew Tom as a friend and neighbor in Sarawak. Complementing this are almost 200 interviews from years of research on four continents. Heimann gives a comprehensive study of Tom Harrisson's life and work. For Sarawak Museum enthusiasts this book is a "must read". In fact, anyone interested in the Sarawak scene will find the book noteworthy. I especially enjoyed the jungle episodes in Borneo and the New Hebrides, which read like an adventure story. Judith Heimann hopes to write a book about the downed American airmen in the jungle. Doubtless, that, like The Most Offending Soul Alive, will be an engaging tale.
Pamela Vest
.
Works by Tom Harrisson:
Background to the Brunei rebellion. Bangkok: Siripat Co., 1963.
Background to a revolt: Brunei and the surrounding territory. Brunei: Light Press, 1963.
[ed.] Borneo Jungle. London: Drummond, 1938.
D.S.O, O.B.E. Papers, 1947.
Excavators of the prehistoric iron industry in West Borneo. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University, 1969. (2 vol.)
500 years of stone age culture in Borneo. Address to the Royal Society of Arts.
Gold and Indian influences in West Borneo. Singapore: 1949.
Gold and megalithic activity in prehistoric and recent West Borneo. Ithaca: Cornell University, 1970.
[ed.] Life in the forests of the Far East. London: Oxford University Press, 1974.
The Malays of South-West Sarawak before Malaysia: a socio-ecological survey. East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University Press, 1970.
The Minutti Collection of bronzes in Brunei. Brunei: Muzium Brunei, 1973.
The "palang": its history and proto-history in West Borneo and the Philippines. Singapore: Malaysian Branch, Royal Asiatic Society, 1964.
[ed.] The Peoples of Sarawak. Kuching: Govt. Printing Office, 1959.
Prehistoric wood from Brunei, Borneo. Brunei: Brunei Museum, 1974.
The prehistory of Sabah. Kota Kinabalu: Sabah Society, 1971.
Pioneering justice: Brooke law in the Seventies.
World within: a Borneo story. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986 [1959].
ISBN 0-9535722-0-X
Quarto, slide bound, card covers, 104 pages plus map
Available direct from the Author:
Thorpe House, Church Hill, Stalbridge, Dorset, DT10 2LR.
Price £15 post free in the United Kingdom. £16 overseas by surface mail.
Initially serialised in The Sarawak Journal, this listing of expatriate Officers in the Rajahs' service was intended for use by philatelists researching the postal history of the country. The author has since increased the original list and expanded it into the present publication, where it will be found of immense value to anyone with an interest in tracing details of the men who administered Sarawak. All dates and details have been obtained from official sources, and cross checked, with any differences noted. The Civil List has been consulted, as have the two government publications, the Sarawak Government Gazette and the Sarawak Gazette, resulting in an alphabetical list of the Rajah's Officers together with the break down of their careers from start to finish.
The unique manner in which Sarawak was governed for over a century under the three white Rajahs, is explained in full in the Introduction, followed by a more detailed explanation of the organisation of the Civil Service, Department by Department, commencing with the Committee of Administration and Chief Secretary, and followed by descriptions of the geographical areas covered by the five Divisions; together with a chronological list of the District Officers and Residents who headed their administration. A map of the country showing the area covered by each Division, in colour, has helpfully been included for ease in locating the whereabouts of towns and outstations. Similar detailed descriptions including chronological lists of heads of Departments and their deputies follow, in some cases extending into the post war years.
Biographies of the three white Rajahs together with their photographs have also not been forgotten, and these will be found to provide an interesting background to the body of the book.
The alphabetical list of Senior Civil Service Officers commences on page 25, with each man's career details in microscopic detail, listing movements between Divisions, promotions, demotions, additional responsibilities, even their long leave periods. In many cases literally from birth to death, or at least retirement. Overseas Consular Officers are also listed, as are the successive British Consuls in Sarawak. Finally, the details of the State Advisory Council in England has been included.
A highly praiseworthy publication, the author is to be congratulated on his thoroughness, concise descriptions, and exemplary clarity of explanation and layout. The only niggling criticism this reviewer has found, is that mention is made of the 'Rajah Muda' and the 'Tuan Muda', without an explanation of these titles or of who held them, which could be confusing to the uninitiated.
Brian Cave.
Editor, The Sarawak Journal.
(August 2000)
The PhD thesis of Eric Tagliacozzo, currently Assistant Professor of History at Cornell’s Southeast Asia Program, is a recording of the history of smuggling in Southeast Asia. Its particular focus is how state technology and smugglers’ ingenuity merged into a highly specific contrabanding environment along the border between British Malaya and the Dutch East Indies.
Tagliacozzo’s exposé departs from certain general and abstract notions. First of all, he questions if there is a common ontological nature to smuggled goods or contraband, or if the definition is determined by time, geography and other factors? The smugglers’ motives can be reduced to three major issues: power, revenue and morality, but the exact composition of the ‘smuggler’s calculus’ remains a complicated one. Finally there is the state’s perception of smuggling. Particular historical moments were determining whether the colonial governments involved would declare certain goods as illegal or not. With respect to the enforcement of its policies the author has - to stay with the metaphor of vision- researched how states ‘see’: what are the available optics?
In the introduction Tagliacozzo also explains his approach and methodology. Although the historiography of state-formation has contributed to delineating many of the forces at work, there is a lack of concrete studies on frontiers and borders. Likewise, studies of criminality and resistance tend to focus on a particular item or phenomenon (drugs, prostitution). In bringing together these various strands the writer hopes to fill a gap in the existing literature on Southeast Asian history.
Aware of the difficulties of studying a region by state-centered geographies and seemingly arbitrary time demarcations, the author argues that it offers an interesting perspective as well as an indispensable tool of analysis. In the period 1870-1910 the building blocks of nation-states were coming into being and the particular geography of the area under study is not only used by the author for analytical purposes, but was exploited by smugglers and colonial administrations as well.
The writer has organized the thesis in three parts. Part I deals with the coming into being of the frontier through surveillance by the colonial governments and by being crossed by contraband traders. Subsequently the vision is narrowed down to the commodity which alarmed the authorities most: firearms. The final part of the thesis is dedicated to the account of particular incident: the interception of a single vessel off the coast of Aceh, giving a micro-level insight in the mechanics of (alleged) smuggling.
Then follows a thorough and orthodox historiography. But this is to be expected of a thesis, which is to be proof of the scholar’s ability to execute rigorous and painstakingly accurate research of sources. The interesting aspect then of this thesis lies not so much in the methodology or narrative but the subject matter, which contains a great deal of ‘subaltern history’. Drawing extensively from Dutch and British primary sources, the narrative gradually moves away from a traditional state-centered account, giving a glimpse of the ‘underbelly’ of 19th and early 20th century Southeast Asian society.
Between 1870 and 1910 the administrative consolidation of both British and Dutch colonial rule raised the level of enforcement in island Southeast Asia. ‘Spheres of influences’ were changed into demarcated territories. But turning out a discrete and functional border was hampered by lack of resources. The situation was further complicated by the presence of other (semi-) autonomous entities such as the Brooke dominions and the British North Borneo Company. A number of factors contributed to this effort of change. Gradually even the most outlying regions were explored for both scientific and economic reasons (natural resources). Extensive survey exercises, both on land and on the seas, were undertaken to map the areas supposedly under control. A complex system of treaties defined the relationships between the colonial powers and local potentates.
A frontier needs also to be enforced. This proved to be more difficult to realize. The Dutch colonial army was chronically short of men, drawing from a range of nationalities of both European and Asian origin. Morale was low and the physical condition of the troops deplorable. The naval forces struggled with patrolling a vast area, which was way beyond the capabilities of their fleet. The main drain on maritime power, however, was the Aceh War, raging from 1873 until the beginning of the 20th century. Technological innovations, such as the introduction of steam power, improved the navy’s action radius. Like army and navy, also the police forces on both sides of the frontier were inadequate for the challenges facing them. Legal structures, such as extradition treaties, remained also imperfect throughout the period of investigation.
Another crucial element for the surveillance of a border is communications. Between 1870 and 1910 great efforts were made to bring the periphery under the center's control by extending the road network, introducing telegraph lines, railways, and - on the sea - coastlining, beaconing and regular (steam) shipping line connections.
Apart from infrastructural improvements, new economic policies also had to contribute to shaping the borders. Therefore, duties on items such as alcohol and shipping regulations were introduced in the same period.
The evolution of this frontier gave way to rampant smuggling through the forests and seas of the region, carried out by an array of actors, each for their own reasons. The most lucrative contraband in Southeast Asia was opium. The majority of the drug was intended for Asian consumers. Along the Straits, Singapore, Penang and the Riau Archipelago played a pivotal role in the transit of opium into the Dutch East Indies. Further to the East, the free port of Labuan was equally important for bringing the drug into Borneo. Although Chinese appeared to be the most frequent offenders, Arabs, Armenians and Europeans were also involved. Along the Sarawak frontier the trade was controlled by Chinese settler organizations. Because of the outlawing of opium in Dutch Borneo and Brooke’s refusal to raise the retail price on opium in his dominions, large-scale smuggling continued here well into the 20th century.
The complex currency situation in Southeast Asia led to the extensive smuggling of counterfeit tender. In this illegal trade the Indies appear to have been part of a much larger international network. The majority of counterfeit currency was minted in China, finding its way into Southeast Asia via the extensive ethnic Chinese trading networks.
The traffic in people can be broken down in three rubrics: the smuggling of prostitutes and concubines, the sale of slaves and the passage of undocumented coolies. With respect to the move of women through the region it seems that the colonial states were deeply implicated. This can be explained from the skewed sex ratios in most of the territories. Traffic took mostly place via the Straits Settlements. Again ethnic Chinese made up the majority of the cases, although also Bugi shippers were involved in this commerce.
Slavery and debt-bondage has existed in Asia since time immemorial. The first ban on slavery was introduced by the Dutch in 1818. But in spite of this the slave trade continued throughout the period in question. Certain areas exported more slaves than others: Bali, Nias, Southern Sulawesi and the Batak lands were some of these places. Also Borneo remained involved in the slave trade until the end of the 19th century. This was partly due to the fragmented nature of authority on the island – split between the Rajah of Sarawak, the British North Borneo Company, the Sultan of Brunei and Labuan. Arabs and Bugis played a prominent role in the trafficking of these human cargoes.
The economic expansion in the archipelago increased the need for cheap labor dramatically. In fact, demand became so acute that it gave impetus to the search for workers outside the sanctioned networks. Sumatran plantations and the territories of the British North Borneo became particularly notorious for the ill-treatment of coolies. Legislation and juridical infrastructures were put in place, but fell short of eradicating the passage of illegal coolies. The movement of these coolies was penetrated by Chinese secret societies. These organizations were particularly strong in the semi-self-governing mining industry.
Part II of the thesis is dedicated to movement of illegal arms. According to the author the stopping of their influx became a lynchpin of the Dutch Indies survival as a state. In this respect there were three perceived threats to the state.
The first was piracy. Both Raffles and James Brooke had considered piracy as a form of cultural anomie. However, present-day authors have explained that maritime violence can be more accurately understood in the historical context of the locality. Piracy remained a threat throughout the period of state-formation for a number of reasons. An important one was the geographical particularity of the area with its thousands of islands, secluded bays and complex river systems. Another problem for the authorities in suppressing piracy was that there was no such ontological category as ‘pirates’. The perpetrators moved in and out of piracy to many other professions.
In the same category falls the phenomenon of ‘low-level’ violence, which was almost considered part of the normal situation in the outlying districts. However, the most violent-ridden space was not a place per se, but an occupation existing in certain places: mining. Many mining colonies were run by Chinese mining cooperations (kongsis), which in turn fell often under the control of Chinese secret societies. Sometimes the violence would even spill into urban centers such as Singapore and Penang.
A second threat to the colonial state was the presence of so-called ‘Vreemde Oosterlingen’ (translated by the author as ‘Foreign Asians’, although I think ‘Foreign Orientals’ would be closer to the original Dutch meaning). The author notes that in earlier times people were grouped together according to their religion. Later this concept was changed. From then on, whether Christian or not, all Foreign Asians were equated under public law with natives.
Numerically the most important group were the Chinese. There had been large Chinese communities in Southeast Asian cities since the 17th century. With the expansion of imperialism they increasingly fell under the authority of the colonial state. Remaining by and large an unknown quantity they came to be perceived as a threat, although many were hardly in a position to pose a real challenge to the state. It was the emergence of the Chinese republic in 1912 that brought things to a boiling point. The new Chinese state responded assertively to the treatment of what they considered Chinese citizens by the colonial governments. This ‘interference’ led to a state of paranoia in Batavia, which had always feared that Chinese, especially those in the outer islands, would slip from their authority.
Another perceived threat to state security were the Japanese. Since the Meiji Restoration Japan had leaped into the age of industrialization. Concomitant the Japanese started to push southwards, establishing economic ties with the island through export and shipping services. Both the administrations in the Asian dominions and the home government followed with growing alarm Japan’s increased spending on trade and defense. Although the Japanese threat only became real long after the end of the period under study, the first signs could already be detected after the Sino-Japanese war of 1894 and the Japanese-Russian War of 1905.
Were the first two Foreign Asian threats seen in ethnic terms, the third one was more couched in religious ones. Pan-Islam was seen as a threatening factor because of the impact it would have on the native population. A widespread intelligence network linking Batavia, Singapore with The Hague, London, Istanbul and Jeddah was put in place to keep track of suspect Arab merchants as well as indigenous Muslim teachers.
Finally there was the uneasy relationship between the colonial government and its native subjects. In early times this relationship had been defined by wars of conquest. Although the former local potentates and their subjects became subjugated, the neat demarcation of absolute Dutch control left much to be desired for. Subsequently the relationship came to be defined by law, in which the Indonesians were made inferior to the Dutch. The colonial government also viewed the movement of natives such as nomadism, the Minangkabau rantau and especially the annual Hajj, or Muslim pilgrimage, with suspicion, because these allowed the indigenes new spaces were they could get their hands on arms (and ideas, I would add). Ironically, it was the change in infrastructural conditions brought about by European rule which intensified the role of movement.
In the final chapter of Part II the author gives a detailed description of actors and commodities involved in the widespread illegal arms trade. In spite of their differences, the British and Dutch colonial authorities made common cause in keeping arms out of the hands of the natives. A legacy of centuries of free arms trading was progressively undone by legislation against the transit of firearms. It was the eruption of the Acheh war that gave the greatest impetus to these efforts. Yet, despite an imposing juridical edifice, the difference in the degree of enforcement between Dutch and British, combined with the Dutch inability to efficiently surveillance their extended borders, allowed the continuous transfer of arms across the frontier. The authorities had not only declared firearms contraband, but also extended the definition to various kind of explosives and even its potential composites. It appears that almost everyone was involved in the illicit trade: Bugis and Chinese societies, Arab and Indian Muslims, Americans, even Europeans themselves participated.
A final illustration of the history of smuggling along the Anglo-Dutch border in the East Indies is given by the description of the case the Junk Kim Ban An, which dragged on from 1873 to 1899.
The thesis of Eric Tagliacozzo has not been published, but copies can be ordered from UMI Dissertation Services.
Carool Kersten
seekay2000@hotmail.com
softcover, 168 pp., photos, facsimiles, footnotes, bibliography ISBN - 983-40707-0-5
Kuching's charm owes partly to its location on the Sarawak River with its procession of boats large and small. Tambangs and bandongs, paddle steamers and cargo ships have all graced Kuching's waterfront. More importantly, Sarawak's rivers were arteries infusing the country with goods and people.
A force in this ship traffic has been the Sarawak Steamship Co., established in 1875 under the aegis of Charles Brooke. The story of this company is entwined with the White Rajahs. The very names of some of its ships, Rajah of Sarawak, Ranee, Gladys, evoke the Brookes. Their Astana lay opposite the wharves and turning basin. These are the ships that they saw from their verandas.
This book is a must-have for those who are enthralled with ships or Sarawak or "the times that are past". Vincent Foo and Chai Foh Chin have collaborated on this tribute to the ships of the line. Mr. Foo, the author, worked for a time for the Sarawak Steamship Company. He has several articles about Sarawak history to his credit. Despite the loss of many documents and ships' crews over the years, he has managed to reconstruct this history. An adept researcher, he has scoured the Sarawak Gazette, the Sarawak Tribune, books, and government records. Another resource was his interviews with former company directors.
Mr. Chai, the current Managing Director of the Sarawak Steamship Company, has contributed vintage photographs and engravings. His photographs of Old Kuching suggest a Conrad novel. Featured, too, are portraits of the Rajahs. Story of the Sarawak Steamship Company is lavished with ship photos. Among them are photos of the Rajah Brooke, the glamour girl of the fleet. Louvered doors and porthole covers hint at tropic destinations. Gleaming brass and brightwork lend a nautical air. Yet her flowered curtains and wicker chairs convey warmth and intimacy.
Mr. Chai has shared documents from his company's archives. Early Sarawak passports, a single sheet of paper, hark back to simpler days. An inventory written in Japanese recalls the days of WWII. There are invitations to a ship launching, bills of lading, and papers written in an elegant hand.
Sarawak relied upon these ships freighted with sago, pepper, and rubber. Other cargoes included jungle products of illipe nuts, rattan, damar, and hardwoods. Sarawak Steamship Co. initially sailed to Singapore and expanded to coastal and riverine services. Eventually her routings extended throughout Sarawak.
Story of the Sarawak Steamship Company examines Sarawak's transportation systems and their impact on the shipping industry. Included are overviews of aviation, railways, and road construction. Coal mining, in particular, gave impetus to improvements in wharfage and port facilities. The relocation of Kuching's port downriver ushered in a new era for the Sarawak Steamship Company. It has since charted a new course in advertising, travel and tourism. Thankfully, Messrs. Foo and Chai have chronicled its contributions to Sarawak's history and economy.
As with men, so it is with ships. Some are called to valor. Thus, the Sarawak Steamship Company has its roster of ships that sailed into the maelstrom of World War II. Some ships were scuttled to deny them to the enemy. Others were mustered to transport materiel to Malaya and Singapore. Other ships carried evacuees, belatedly, as it turned out. Off they sailed, trusting to luck and Providence. Their most effective weapon seemed to be evasion. Nine Japanese planes overwhelmed the gallant Vyner Brooke in the Bangka Strait. That ship will be forever linked with the massacre of her survivors on a Sumatran beach. Like Ishmael, one alone escaped to tell the tale.
Mr. Foo speaks eloquently of the magic of these old ships. He confides to us,
Story of the Sarawak Steamship Company will keep the memory alive. May these old ships continue to resonate in the waterways of Sarawak and the hearts of men.
Pamela Vest
Longwood, Florida
FOO, Vincent H.K., Sarawak: mini episodes of the past. Malaysia, 2006.
Vincent Foo, co-author of The Story of the Sarawak Steamship Company, has taken another retrospective look with Sarawak: Mini Episodes of the Past. The montage on the cover - James Brooke, the Astana, a buffalo race, and a freighter loading logs - hints at the variety of topics covered.
Foo traces the history of three Sarawak towns: Kuching, Sri Aman, and Limbang. Kuching was merely a village of 800 when James Brooke arrived there. Sri Aman (formerly Simanggang) was Charles Brooke’s favorite place. Limbang, once the Forgotten Division, became known for its buffalo races.
The Padang Merdeka, formerly the Esplanade, rates a chapter of its own. This green heart of Kuching has witnessed 130 years of history. Foo relates the story of the Sarawak Club and its predecessors. [The Club recently burned down, but is slated to be rebuilt.] The Sarawak Club ultimately absorbed several other clubs, including the ladies’ club. Previously the women had the “habit of coercing any passing male to visit or play bridge or tennis.” This led to complaints in the newspaper about “harassing…any male who passed by. However the women were undeterred and continued to accost men.”
Foo also covers the Gymkhana Club in Miri, which was founded for government officers, but, over time, enrolled oilfield workers. Other institutions are the Cheshire Home, a residence for disabled children and adults; St. Thomas’ School, a pioneering Anglican school; and the Sea Scouts. Kuching’s Sea Scouts were founded by the Sarawak Steamship Company. The shipping line, rather shrewdly, started the group in order to groom a potential pool of employees. For the scouts, this was an opportunity to learn seamanship skills and enjoy new experiences, such as swimming in the Astana pool.
Foo has added chapters on Port Development in Sarawak, the Rajang Port Authority, and the Brooke Dockyard. The Brooke Dockyard was established so ships could avoid having to be taken to Singapore for repairs. Ranee Muda Sylvia officially opened the facility. The occasion caused such excitement that some people jumped into the dock.
Foo gives an overview of Sarawak’s premier shipping line, the Sarawak Steamship Co. He includes copies of 19th century company correspondence with the government and a document about the conditions of employment. The author also explains the history of Sarawak aviation, which had its beginnings in oilfield aerial surveys.
The gold industry in Sarawak, which led to the immigration of Chinese gold miners, initially from Dutch Borneo (now Kalimantan Barat), is also examined. Included is another major industry, rubber. This dates from the reign of Rajah Charles, who established experimental rubber plantings. The Rajah encouraged a system of small, individual holdings, rather than government plantations, in keeping with his vision for the country.
The book examines the story of coal in Sarawak. Coal, the petroleum of its day, was Rajah Charles’ enduring obsession. “Everywhere he strode, his quest was ever for coal. Coal became his Holy Grail. His one good eye gleamed as he looked for a seam.”
Foo turns the spotlight on Sarawakians who have been involved in these industries. He follows the career of the Brooke Dockyard’s Leong Hin Lin, who rose from labourer to Senior Works Engineer. Tan Eng Kearn is profiled for the airline industry, as his career dates from aviation’s beginnings in Sarawak. The Goh family represents the gas and oil industry. Joseph Goh was an overseer at Sarawak Oilfields and his two sons became senior staff there. Chin Jan Tin’s story exemplifies the experiences of the Bau gold miners. The author also focuses on John Khoo of the Sadong Colliery and other coal industry workers.
Vincent Foo devotes two chapters to his experience of growing up during the Japanese Occupation and post-war era, a time of hardship. However, he shares other, fond memories of life in a slower, gentler Kuching: milling rubber with a mangle, foraging for fruit, the daily parade of vendors selling everything from clogs to rojak.
The book explains the games they played as children, a topic which is seldom chronicled. Not having manufactured toys, the children crafted their own fun. They devised complex games using bottle caps, stones, cigarette packs, and paper toys. For their war games, they used hard, pointed seeds and hunted small animals with slingshots. Naturally they flew kites and had kite wars, a very Malay pastime.
Despite the title Mini Episodes, each chapter is comprehensive and detailed, buttressed by facts and figures. The work is well researched, drawing on Sarawak newspapers and publications, and numerous interviews. Rounding out the book are several maps and 177 photographs, many from the Sarawak Museum collection. Sarawak: Mini Episodes of the Past lends the sense of another time and place. Accordingly, it succeeds as a portal to the Sarawak of yesteryear.
Pamela Vest
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